The problems of philosophy

Bertrand Russell's "The Problems of Philosophy" offers a foundational exploration of epistemology and metaphysics. The work begins by questioning the certainty of knowledge, examining the distinction between 'appearance' and 'reality,' and the relationship between sense-data and physical objects, contrasting common-sense views with idealism, particularly through the arguments of Bishop Berkeley and Leibniz. Russell differentiates between 'knowledge by acquaintance' (direct awareness of sense-data, memory, introspection, universals) and 'knowledge by description' (knowing an object through its properties without direct experience). The book delves into the nature of general principles, distinguishing between the inductive principle (necessary for empirical arguments but unprovable by experience) and self-evident logical/a priori principles. It contrasts empiricist and rationalist views on the origin of knowledge, concluding that while a priori principles are not derived from experience, knowledge of existence is. Russell critically examines Kant's theory of a priori knowledge and dedicates a significant portion to the 'World of Universals,' introducing Plato's theory of ideas and arguing for the independent 'subsistence' of universals (qualities and relations) as distinct from particulars, explaining how a priori knowledge primarily concerns these relations. The text explores 'intuitive knowledge,' examining self-evidence in general principles, truths of perception, and memory, noting that self-evidence exists in degrees. It defines truth as a correspondence between belief and fact, rejecting the coherence theory, and analyzes the complex nature of belief as a multi-term relation, questioning the definition of 'knowing' beyond mere 'true belief.' The book concludes by discussing the problem of induction, questioning the justification for inferring future events or unobserved phenomena based on past experience, and highlighting the role of instinctive beliefs. It critically examines the scope of philosophical inquiry, refuting metaphysical attempts (like Hegel's) to deduce universal truths a priori, and emphasizes the role of experience. Ultimately, Russell argues that philosophy's intrinsic value lies not in providing definitive answers but in fostering critical thinking, expanding intellectual imagination, liberating the mind from dogmatism, and promoting an impartial, universal contemplation that transcends narrow personal interests, leading to a profound enlargement of the Self.