Applied Sedimentology

his is a completely revised edition of Applied Sedimentology, first published in 1988. Like its precursor, it describes sediments from sand grains to sedimentary basins. Part 1, Rock to Sediment, introduces the concept of the sedimentary cycle, describes weathering and soil formation, and details the fundamental physical properties of a sediment: texture, porosity, and permeability. Part 2, Sediment Sedimented, begins by describing the transportation and deposition of sediment and the resultant sedimentary structures. It ends with a description of the various depositional systems, sequence stratigraphy, and cyclicity. Part 3, Sediment to Rock, opens by describing how pressure, temperature, and fluid processes control petroleum and ore formation. It continues with accounts of the evolution of porosity and permeability in carbonates and sandstones. The last chapter describes the different types of sedimentary basins, their origins, depositional fill, and the evolution of their fluids. The book emphasizes the applications of sedimentology to the exploration for and exploitation of natural resources, including water, ores, and hydrocarbons. Applied Sedimentology is written principally for senior undergraduate and postgraduate students of earth science and engineering. It may also, however, prove useful to more mature readers who explore and exploit the sedimentary rocks for fossil fuels and mineral deposits.

Contents

• Preface ix

1 Introduction

• 1.1 Introduction and Historical Review 1
• 1.2 Sedimentology and the Earth Sciences 3
• 1.3 Applied Sedimentology 5
• 1.3.1 Petroleum 8
• 1.3.2 Sedimentary Ores: General Aspects 10
• Selected Bibliography 16
• References 16

Part I Rock to Sediment 2 Weathering and the Sedimentary Cycle

• 2.1 Introduction 21
• 2.2 The Sedimentary Cycle 22
• 2.3 Weathering 25
• 2.3.1 Biological Weathering and Soil Formation 25
• 2.3.2 Physical Weathering 29
• 2.3.3 Chemical Weathering 30
• 2.3.4 Economic Significance and Conclusion 34
• Selected Bibliography 38
• References 38

3 Particles, Pores, and Permeability

• 3.1 Physical Properties of Particles 41
• 3.1.1 Surface Texture of Particles 41
• 3.1.2 Particle Shape, Sphericity, and Roundness 42
• 3.1.3 Particle Size 44
• 3.2 Porosity and Permeability 56
• 3.2.1 Introduction 56
• 3.2.2 Pore Morphology 65
• 3.2.3 The Origin of Primary Porosity 72
• Selected Bibliography 82
• References 82

Part II Sediment Sedimented 4 Transportation and Sedimentation

• 4.1 Introduction 89
• 4.2 Aqueous Processes 94
• 4.2.1 Sedimentation from Traction Currents 94
• 4.2.2 Sedimentation from High-Density Turbidity Currents 101
• 4.2.3 Sedimentation from Low-Density Turbidity Currents 106
• 4.3 Eolian Processes 108
• 4.3.1 Eolian Sedimentation from Traction Carpets 109
• 4.3.2 Eolian Sedimentation from Suspension 113
• 4.4 Glacial Processes 113
• 4.5 Gravitational Processes 118
• 4.5.1 Debris Flow 121
• 4.5.2 Grain Flows 123
• 4.5.3 Fluidized Flows 123
• Selected Bibliography 124
• References 125

5 Sedimentary Structures

• 5.1 Introduction 130
• 5.2 Biogenic Sedimentary Structures 133
• 5.3 Primary Inorganic Sedimentary Structures 136
• 5.3.1 Introduction 136
• 5.3.2 Predepositional (Interbed) Structures 138
• 5.3.3 Syndepositional (Intrabed) Structures 142
• 5.3.4 Postdepositional Sedimentary Structures 157
• 5.3.5 Miscellaneous Structures 162
• 5.4 Paleocurrent Analysis 168
• 5.4.1 Collection of Paleocurrent Data 168
• 5.4.2 Presentation of Paleocurrent Data 169
• 5.4.3 Interpretation of Paleocurrent Data 171
• Selected Bibliography 174
• References 175

6 Depositional Systems

• 6.1 Sedimentary Environments 181
• 6.1.1 Environments Defined 181
• 6.1.2 Environments of Erosion, Equilibrium, and Deposition 182
• 6.1.3 Environments Classified 184
• 6.2 Sedimentary Facies 187
• 6.3 Sedimentary Models 189
• 6.3.1 The Model Concept 189
• 6.3.2 Some Models Described 190
• 6.4 Sedimentary Models, Increments, and Cycles 277
• 6.4.1 Walther's Law 279
• 6.4.2 Genetic Increments and Sequences of Sedimentation 280
• 6.4.3 Sequence Stratigraphy 281
• 6.4.4 Cyclostratigraphy 286
• Selected Bibliography 290
• References 290

Part III Sediment to Rock 7 The Subsurface Environment

• 7.1 Subsurface Temperatures 309
• 7.2 Subsurface Pressures 312
• 7.3 Subsurface Fluids 315
• 7.3.1 Nonhydrocarbon Gases 315
• 7.3.2 Petroleum Fluids 316
• 7.3.3 Subsurface Waters 318
• 7.4 Fluid Flow in Sedimentary Basins 323
• 7.4.1 Meteoric Flow 323
• 7.4.2 Compactional Flow 324
• 7.4.3 Convective Flow 325
• Selected Bibliography 326
• References 326

8 Allochthonous Sediments

• 8.1 Introduction: The Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 329
• 8.2 Allochthonous Sediments Classified 330
• 8.3 Mudrocks 332
• 8.3.1 Sapropelites, Oil Shales, and Oil Source Rocks 333
• 8.3.2 Orthoclaystones and Clay Minerals 335
• 8.4 Pyroclastic Sediments 344
• 8.5 Sandstones 345
• 8.5.1 Nomenclature and Classification of Sandstones 345
• 8.5.2 Sandstones Described 352
• 8.5.3 Diagenesis and Porosity Evolution of Sandstones 356
• 8.6 Rudaceous Rocks 377
• 8.6.1 Conglomerates 380
• 8.6.2 Sedimentary Breccias 383
• Selected Bibliography 387
• References 387

9 Autochthonous Sediments

• 9.1 Introduction 394
• 9.2 Carbonates 395
• 9.2.1 Introduction 395
• 9.2.2 Carbonate Minerals 396
• 9.2.3 Physical Components of Carbonate Rocks 397
• 9.2.4 Nomenclature and Classification 404
• 9.2.5 Diagenesis and Porosity Evolution of Limestones 406
• 9.2.6 Dolomite 420
• 9.2.7 Diagenesis and Porosity Evolution of Carbonates: Summary 423
• 9.3 Coal 427
• 9.3.1 Introduction 427
• 9.3.2 Coal Petrography 427
• 9.3.3 Environments of Coal Deposition 430
• 9.4 Sedimentary Iron Ores 432
• 9.4.1 Oolitic Iron Ores 433
• 9.4.2. Pre-Cambrian Banded Ironstone Formations 434
• 9.5 Phosphates 436
• 9.5.1 Mode of Occurrence of Phosphates 436
• 9.5.2 Mode of Formation of Phosphates 439
• 9.6 Evaporites 439
• 9.6.1 Introduction 439
• 9.6.2 Gross Geologic Characteristics 441
• 9.6.3 Carbonate-Anhydrite Cycles 446
• 9.6.4 Halite-Potash Evaporite Successions 453
• 9.6.5 Economic Significance of Evaporites 455
• 9.7 Cherts 457
• Selected Bibliography 459
• References 459

10 Sedimentary Basins

• 10.1 Introduction 467
• 10.1.1 Sediment Supply and Accommodation Space 467
• 10.1.2 Basic Concepts and Terminology 468
• 10.1.3 Basin-Forming Mechanisms 472
• 10.2 Sedimentary Basins Classified and Described 475
• 10.2.1 Classification of Sedimentary Basins 475
• 10.2.2 Crustal Sag Basins 476
• 10.2.3 Basins Caused by Plate Convergence 486
• 10.2.4 Basins Caused by Plate Divergence 491
• 10.3 Basin Evolution, Metallogeny, and the Petroleum System 496
• Selected Bibliography 507
• References 507

• Subject Index 513
• About the Author 523